Major Issues in Developing Literacy in Primary School.
by
Ben Makau
Three major and interrelated issues impact the development of literacy in English in the primary education systems of Kenya, Uganda and Zimbabwe:
(a) conflict between mother tongue as the natural foundation for the development of language and an African culture on one hand and on the other, perceptions that as a global language English is the gateway to socio-economic development;
(b) language policy development in the school system; and (c) monitoring and assessment of literacy acquisition by learners. This summary paper explores only (a).
1.1 Mother Tongue v. English
Research literature that reflects psychological theories of language acquisition and development, and precepts of socio-cultural evolution takes the view that in education the learners' first language (L1) ought to be developed as the language of instruction (LOI) so as to foster the evolution of a truly indigenous way of life in formerly colonized societies (see Mazrui, 1980; Mbaabu, 1996; Ngugi wa Thiong'o, 1986) . While accepting that as a global language English is important in the education system, a recent public commission on education in Zimbabwe highlights the growing body of research findings that support the centrality of L1 in basic education: the first language is essential for the initial teaching of reading and comprehension of the subject matter. It is the necessary foundation for the cognitive development upon which the acquisition of the 2nd language [i.e. English] is based . Reflecting thinking elsewhere in post-colonial Africa (see Anderson, 1970; Parry, 2000; Republic of Kenya, 1972, 1976 & 1999; Republic of Uganda, 1992; Sheffield, 1973; Sifuna, 1980; Udaet, 1992) , the commission's report bemoans the colonial denigration of African languages and cultures, and advocates for the restoration of L1 as the desirable core of education:
The Commission views indigenous languages to be the core of education. These languages are central to the transmission of Zimbabwean culture, values, norms and creation of a national identity… [A]cceptance and use of English has negative effects in that the African has slowly but willy-nilly lost his culture and identity… Essentially, language is a vehicle of the transmission of culture hence the acceptance of English [sic] has led to the adoption of English culture at the expense of traditional cultural values (Nziramasanga, pp. 166-7).
In contrast to perceptions of and advocacy for giving priority to L1, there is evidence that, rather than visualize English as a foreign intrusion that should be relegated, most African stakeholders in education see English as part of the current reality and an important tool in socio-economic development. Recent studies on LOI in the Kenya and Uganda primary education systems found that parents, pupils and teachers perceive English as the key to further education and socio-economic advancement . In spite of conviction that local languages have a role and ought to be taught in school, most respondents held the view that English should be given increasing emphasis as the primary school course progresses. These findings concur with the widely reported demand in formerly colonized countries for formal education to inculcate mastery of widely spoken (largely metropolitan) languages (see Dutcher, 1995; Lopez, 2000; Rubagumya, 2000) . Lopez (2000:8) describes this demand as follows:
….due to the colonial and sociohistorical conditions ruling the relationship between vernaculars and hegemonic languages, parents generally demand the implementation of a sound educational program that would guarantee that their children fluently communicate in that hegemonic second language, and particularly that they need to read and write in it.
It is significant that, rather than relegate English as a foreign language, after attaining independence Kenya, Uganda and Zimbabwe developed policies that embrace the use of English as LOI after the third or fourth primary school grade. This policy position is tantamount to recognition that in the current reality English is a key gateway to further education, access to public administration, governance, industry and business, and an increasingly globalized economy characterized by rapid technological change.
However, English-philia notwithstanding, the dilemma inherent in the mother tongue v. English clash cannot be easily wished away. Educational policy development with regard to language is a highly emotive phenomenon partly because it is intimately linked to cultural identity and way of life of individuals and communities. Wholesale relegation of either mother tongue or English in the school system is not a viable option. Albeit partial and on a number of counts unsatisfactory to protagonists on both sides of the debate, the way forward would seem to lie in accepting the current bilingual and multilingual reality in the school system and making concrete efforts to address it. The theory of linguistic interdependency, i.e. that the development of first language (mother tongue) can be contemporaneous with and could be a sound antecedent for learning a second language, provides a guide to policy development. Lopez (op. cit.: 8-9) makes the case for linguistic interdependency in school systems as follows:
There is no doubt that second language teaching must take advantage of and be based on the notion of linguistic interdependency …First language cannot be relegated and deserves careful and sympathetic attention even if our concern is mainly related to second language acquisition.
Finally, it should be noted that the literature on language in education is replete with findings that, given adequate resources, adoption of bilingualism or multilingualism is a viable approach in developing education systems particularly in settings where mother tongues are in competition with widely spoken languages such as English (among others see Bialystok and Hakuta, 1994; Brisk, 1998; Cenoz and Genesee, 1998; Cummins and Corson, 1998; Hakuta, 1986; Okonkwo, 1977; Padilla et al., 1990; Pennycook, 1994; Rubagumya, 1994; Schmied, 1991; Thomas and Collier, 1998; Watson, 1992).
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